ARTICLE 7 - THE VIRTUES
1803 "Whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure,
whatever is lovely, whatever is gracious, if there is any excellence, if there is anything
worthy of praise, think about these things."[62]
A virtue is an habitual and firm disposition to do the good. It allows the person not
only to perform good acts, but to give the best of himself. The virtuous person tends
toward the good with all his sensory and spiritual powers; he pursues the good and
chooses it in concrete actions.
The goal of a virtuous life is to become like God.[63]
I. THE HUMAN VIRTUES
1804 Human virtues are firm attitudes, stable dispositions, habitual perfections of
intellect and will that govern our actions, order our passions, and guide our conduct
according to reason and faith. They make possible ease, self-mastery, and joy in leading a
morally good life. The virtuous man is he who freely practices the good.
The moral virtues are acquired by human effort. They are the fruit and seed of morally
good acts; they dispose all the powers of the human being for communion with divine
love.
The cardinal virtues
1805 Four virtues play a pivotal role and accordingly are called "cardinal"; all the others
are grouped around them. They are: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. "If
anyone loves righteousness, [Wisdom's] labors are virtues; for she teaches temperance
and prudence, justice, and courage."[64] These virtues are praised under other names in
many passages of Scripture.
1806 Prudence is the virtue that disposes practical reason to discern our true good in
every circumstance and to choose the right means of achieving it; "the prudent man
looks where he is going."[65] "Keep sane and sober for your prayers."[66] Prudence is
"right reason in action," writes St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle.[67] It is not to
be confused with timidity or fear, nor with duplicity or dissimulation. It is called auriga
virtutum (the charioteer of the virtues); it guides the other virtues by setting rule and
measure. It is prudence that immediately guides the judgment of conscience. The
prudent man determines and directs his conduct in accordance with this judgment. With
the help of this virtue we apply moral principles to particular cases without error and
overcome doubts about the good to achieve and the evil to avoid.
1807 Justice is the moral virtue that consists in the constant and firm will to give their
due to God and neighbor. Justice toward God is called the "virtue of religion." Justice
toward men disposes one to respect the rights of each and to establish in human
relationships the harmony that promotes equity with regard to persons and to the
common good. The just man, often mentioned in the Sacred Scriptures, is distinguished
by habitual right thinking and the uprightness of his conduct toward his neighbor. "You
shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great, but in righteousness shall you judge
your neighbor."[68] "Masters, treat your slaves justly and fairly, knowing that you also
have a Master in heaven."[69]
1808 Fortitude is the moral virtue that ensures firmness in difficulties and constancy in
the pursuit of the good. It strengthens the resolve to resist temptations and to overcome
obstacles in the moral life. The virtue of fortitude enables one to conquer fear, even fear
of death, and to face trials and persecutions. It disposes one even to renounce and
sacrifice his life in defense of a just cause. "The Lord is my strength and my song."[70]
"In the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the
world."[71]
1809 Temperance is the moral virtue that moderates the attraction of pleasures and
provides balance in the use of created goods. It ensures the will's mastery over instincts
and keeps desires within the limits of what is honorable. The temperate person directs
the sensitive appetites toward what is good and maintains a healthy discretion: "Do not
follow your inclination and strength, walking according to the desires of your heart."[72]
Temperance is often praised in the Old Testament: "Do not follow your base desires,
but restrain your appetites."[73] In the New Testament it is called "moderation" or
"sobriety." We ought "to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this world."[74]
To live well is nothing other than to love God with all one's heart, with all one's soul
and with all one's efforts; from this it comes about that love is kept whole and
uncorrupted (through temperance). No misfortune can disturb it (and this is fortitude).
It obeys only [God] (and this is justice), and is careful in discerning things, so as not to
be surprised by deceit or trickery (and this is prudence).[75]
The virtues and grace
1810 Human virtues acquired by education, by deliberate acts and by a perseverance
ever-renewed in repeated efforts are purified and elevated by divine grace. With God's
help, they forge character and give facility in the practice of the good. The virtuous man
is happy to practice them.
1811 It is not easy for man, wounded by sin, to maintain moral balance. Christ's gift of
salvation offers us the grace necessary to persevere in the pursuit of the virtues.
Everyone should always ask for this grace of light and strength, frequent the sacraments,
cooperate with the Holy Spirit, and follow his calls to love what is good and shun evil.
II. THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
1812 The human virtues are rooted in the theological virtues, which adapt man's
faculties for participation in the divine nature:[76] for the theological virtues relate
directly to God. They dispose Christians to live in a relationship with the Holy Trinity.
They have the One and Triune God for their origin, motive, and object.
1813 The theological virtues are the foundation of Christian moral activity; they animate
it and give it its special character. They inform and give life to all the moral virtues. They
are infused by God into the souls of the faithful to make them capable of acting as his
children and of meriting eternal life. They are the pledge of the presence and action of
the Holy Spirit in the faculties of the human being. There are three theological virtues:
faith, hope, and charity.[77]
Faith
1814 Faith is the theological virtue by which we believe in God and believe all that he
has said and revealed to us, and that Holy Church proposes for our belief, because he is
truth itself. By faith "man freely commits his entire self to God."[78] For this reason the
believer seeks to know and do God's will. "The righteous shall live by faith." Living faith
"work[s] through charity."[79]
1815 The gift of faith remains in one who has not sinned against it.[80] But "faith apart
from works is dead":[81] when it is deprived of hope and love, faith does not fully unite
the believer to Christ and does not make him a living member of his Body.
1816 The disciple of Christ must not only keep the faith and live on it, but also profess
it, confidently bear witness to it, and spread it: "All however must be prepared to
confess Christ before men and to follow him along the way of the Cross, amidst the
persecutions which the Church never lacks."[82] Service of and witness to the faith are
necessary for salvation: "So every one who acknowledges me before men, I also will
acknowledge before my Father who is in heaven; but whoever denies me before men, I
also will deny before my Father who is in heaven."[83]
Hope
1817 Hope is the theological virtue by which we desire the kingdom of heaven and
eternal life as our happiness, placing our trust in Christ's promises and relying not on our
own strength, but on the help of the grace of the Holy Spirit. "Let us hold fast the
confession of our hope without wavering, for he who promised is faithful."[84] "The
Holy Spirit . . . he poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, so that we
might be justified by his grace and become heirs in hope of eternal life."[85]
1818 The virtue of hope responds to the aspiration to happiness which God has placed
in the heart of every man; it takes up the hopes that inspire men's activities and purifies
them so as to order them to the Kingdom of heaven; it keeps man from
discouragement; it sustains him during times of abandonment; it opens up his heart in
expectation of eternal beatitude. Buoyed up by hope, he is preserved from selfishness
and led to the happiness that flows from charity.
1819 Christian hope takes up and fulfills the hope of the chosen people which has its
origin and model in the hope of Abraham, who was blessed abundantly by the promises
of God fulfilled in Isaac, and who was purified by the test of the sacrifice.[86] "Hoping
against hope, he believed, and thus became the father of many nations."[87]
1820 Christian hope unfolds from the beginning of Jesus' preaching in the proclamation
of the beatitudes. The beatitudes raise our hope toward heaven as the new Promised
Land; they trace the path that leads through the trials that await the disciples of Jesus.
But through the merits of Jesus Christ and of his Passion, God keeps us in the "hope
that does not disappoint."[88] Hope is the "sure and steadfast anchor of the soul . . . that
enters . . . where Jesus has gone as a forerunner on our behalf."[89] Hope is also a
weapon that protects us in the struggle of salvation: "Let us . . . put on the breastplate of
faith and charity, and for a helmet the hope of salvation."[90] It affords us joy even
under trial: "Rejoice in your hope, be patient in tribulation."[91] Hope is expressed and
nourished in prayer, especially in the Our Father, the summary of everything that hope
leads us to desire.
1821 We can therefore hope in the glory of heaven promised by God to those who love
him and do his will.[92] In every circumstance, each one of us should hope, with the
grace of God, to persevere "to the end"[93] and to obtain the joy of heaven, as God's
eternal reward for the good works accomplished with the grace of Christ. In hope, the
Church prays for "all men to be saved."[94] She longs to be united with Christ, her
Bridegroom, in the glory of heaven:
Hope, O my soul, hope. You know neither the day nor the hour. Watch carefully, for
everything passes quickly, even though your impatience makes doubtful what is certain,
and turns a very short time into a long one. Dream that the more you struggle, the more
you prove the love that you bear your God, and the more you will rejoice one day with
your Beloved, in a happiness and rapture that can never end.[95]
Charity
1822 Charity is the theological virtue by which we love God above all things for his own
sake, and our neighbor as ourselves for the love of God.
1823 Jesus makes charity the new commandment.[96] By loving his own "to the
end,"[97] he makes manifest the Father's love which he receives. By loving one another,
the disciples imitate the love of Jesus which they themselves receive. Whence Jesus says:
"As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you; abide in my love." And again: "This is
my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you."[98]
1824 Fruit of the Spirit and fullness of the Law, charity keeps the commandments of
God and his Christ: "Abide in my love. If you keep my commandments, you will abide
in my love."[99]
1825 Christ died out of love for us, while we were still "enemies."[100] The Lord asks us
to love as he does, even our enemies, to make ourselves the neighbor of those farthest
away, and to love children and the poor as Christ himself.[101]
The Apostle Paul has given an incomparable depiction of charity: "charity is patient and
kind, charity is not jealous or boastful; it is not arrogant or rude. Charity does not insist
on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices
in the right. Charity bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all
things."[102]
1826 "If I . . . have not charity," says the Apostle, "I am nothing." Whatever my
privilege, service, or even virtue, "if I . . . have not charity, I gain nothing."[103] Charity
is superior to all the virtues. It is the first of the theological virtues: "So faith, hope,
charity abide, these three. But the greatest of these is charity."[104]
1827 The practice of all the virtues is animated and inspired by charity, which "binds
everything together in perfect harmony";[105] it is the form of the virtues; it articulates
and orders them among themselves; it is the source and the goal of their Christian
practice. Charity upholds and purifies our human ability to love, and raises it to the
supernatural perfection of divine love.
1828 The practice of the moral life animated by charity gives to the Christian the
spiritual freedom of the children of God. He no longer stands before God as a slave, in
servile fear, or as a mercenary looking for wages, but as a son responding to the love of
him who "first loved us":[106]
If we turn away from evil out of fear of punishment, we are in the position of slaves. If
we pursue the enticement of wages, . . . we resemble mercenaries. Finally if we obey for
the sake of the good itself and out of love for him who commands . . . we are in the
position of children.[107]
1829 The fruits of charity are joy, peace, and mercy; charity demands beneficence and
fraternal correction; it is benevolence; it fosters reciprocity and remains disinterested and
generous; it is friendship and communion:
Love is itself the fulfillment of all our works. There is the goal; that is why we run: we
run toward it, and once we reach it, in it we shall find rest.[108]
III. THE GIFTS AND FRUITS OF THE HOLY
SPIRIT
1830 The moral life of Christians is sustained by the gifts of the Holy Spirit. These are
permanent dispositions which make man docile in following the promptings of the Holy
Spirit.
1831 The seven gifts of the Holy Spirit are wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude,
knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord. They belong in their fullness to Christ, Son of
David.[109] They complete and perfect the virtues of those who receive them. They
make the faithful docile in readily obeying divine inspirations. Let your good spirit lead
me on a level path.[110]
For all who are led by the Spirit of God are sons of God . . . If children, then heirs,
heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ.[111]
1832 The fruits of the Spirit are perfections that the Holy Spirit forms in us as the first
fruits of eternal glory. The tradition of the Church lists twelve of them: "charity, joy,
peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, selfcontrol,
chastity."[112]
IN BRIEF
1833 Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do good.
1834 The human virtues are stable dispositions of the intellect and the will that govern
our acts, order our passions, and guide our conduct in accordance with reason and faith.
They can be grouped around the four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, fortitude, and
temperance.
1835 Prudence disposes the practical reason to discern, in every circumstance, our true
good and to choose the right means for achieving it.
1836 Justice consists in the firm and constant will to give God and neighbor their due.
1837 Fortitude ensures firmness in difficulties and constancy in the pursuit of the good.
1838 Temperance moderates the attraction of the pleasures of the senses and provides
balance in the use of created goods.
1839 The moral virtues grow through education, deliberate acts, and perseverance in
struggle. Divine grace purifies and elevates them.
1840 The theological virtues dispose Christians to live in a relationship with the Holy
Trinity. They have God for their origin, their motive, and their object - God known by
faith, God hoped in and loved for his own sake.
1841 There are three theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity. They inform all the
moral virtues and give life to them.
1842 By faith, we believe in God and believe all that he has revealed to us and that Holy
Church proposes for our belief.
1843 By hope we desire, and with steadfast trust await from God, eternal life and the
graces to merit it.
1844 By charity, we love God above all things and our neighbor as ourselves for love of
God. Charity, the form of all the virtues, "binds everything together in perfect harmony"
(Col 3:14).
1845 The seven gifts of the Holy Spirit bestowed upon Christians are wisdom,
understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord.
ARTICLE 8 - SIN
I. MERCY AND SIN
1846 The Gospel is the revelation in Jesus Christ of God's mercy to sinners.[113] The
angel announced to Joseph: "You shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people
from their sins."[114] The same is true of the Eucharist, the sacrament of redemption:
"This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of
sins."[115]
1847 "God created us without us: but he did not will to save us without us."[116] To
receive his mercy, we must admit our faults. "If we say we have no sin, we deceive
ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just, and
will forgive our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness."[117]
1848 As St. Paul affirms, "Where sin increased, grace abounded all the more."[118] But
to do its work grace must uncover sin so as to convert our hearts and bestow on us
"righteousness to eternal life through Jesus Christ ourLord."[119] Like a physician who
probes the wound before treating it, God, by his Word and by his Spirit, casts a living
light on sin:
Conversion requires convincing of sin; it includes the interior judgment of conscience,
and this, being a proof of the action of the Spirit of truth in man's inmost being,
becomes at the same time the start of a new grant of grace and love: "Receive the Holy
Spirit." Thus in this "convincing concerning sin" we discover a double gift: the gift of
the truth of conscience and the gift of the certainty of redemption. The Spirit of truth is
the Consoler.[120]
II. THE DEFINITION OF SIN
1849 Sin is an offense against reason, truth, and right conscience; it is failure in genuine
love for God and neighbor caused by a perverse attachment to certain goods. It wounds
the nature of man and injures human solidarity. It has been defined as "an utterance, a
deed, or a desire contrary to the eternal law."[121]
1850 Sin is an offense against God: "Against you, you alone, have I sinned, and done
that which is evil in your sight."[122] Sin sets itself against God's love for us and turns
our hearts away from it. Like the first sin, it is disobedience, a revolt against God
through the will to become "like gods,"[123] knowing and determining good and evil.
Sin is thus "love of oneself even to contempt of God."[124] In this proud selfexaltation,
sin is diametrically opposed to the obedience of Jesus, which achieves our
salvation.[125]
1851 It is precisely in the Passion, when the mercy of Christ is about to vanquish it, that
sin most clearly manifests its violence and its many forms: unbelief, murderous hatred,
shunning and mockery by the leaders and the people, Pilate's cowardice and the cruelty
of the soldiers, Judas' betrayal - so bitter to Jesus, Peter's denial and the disciples' flight.
However, at the very hour of darkness, the hour of the prince of this world,[126] the
sacrifice of Christ secretly becomes the source from which the forgiveness of our sins
will pour forth inexhaustibly.
III. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SINS
1852 There are a great many kinds of sins. Scripture provides several lists of them. The
Letter to the Galatians contrasts the works of the flesh with the fruit of the Spirit: "Now
the works of the flesh are plain: fornication, impurity, licentiousness, idolatry, sorcery,
enmity, strife, jealousy, anger, selfishness, dissension, factions, envy, drunkenness,
carousing, and the like. I warn you, as I warned you before, that those who do such
things shall not inherit the Kingdom of God."[127]
1853 Sins can be distinguished according to their objects, as can every human act; or
according to the virtues they oppose, by excess or defect; or according to the
commandments they violate. They can also be classed according to whether they
concern God, neighbor, or oneself; they can be divided into spiritual and carnal sins, or
again as sins in thought, word, deed, or omission. The root of sin is in the heart of man,
in his free will, according to the teaching of the Lord: "For out of the heart come evil
thoughts, murder, adultery, fornication, theft, false witness, slander. These are what
defile a man."[128] But in the heart also resides charity, the source of the good and pure
works, which sin wounds.
IV. THE GRAVITY OF SIN: MORTAL AND
VENIAL SIN
1854 Sins are rightly evaluated according to their gravity. The distinction between mortal
and venial sin, already evident in Scripture,[129] became part of the tradition of the
Church. It is corroborated by human experience.
1855 Mortal sin destroys charity in the heart of man by a grave violation of God's law; it
turns man away from God, who is his ultimate end and his beatitude, by preferring an
inferior good to him.
Venial sin allows charity to subsist, even though it offends and wounds it.
1856 Mortal sin, by attacking the vital principle within us - that is, charity - necessitates a
new initiative of God's mercy and a conversion of heart which is normally accomplished
within the setting of the sacrament of reconciliation:
When the will sets itself upon something that is of its nature incompatible with the
charity that orients man toward his ultimate end, then the sin is mortal by its very object
. . . whether it contradicts the love of God, such as blasphemy or perjury, or the love of
neighbor, such as homicide or adultery.... But when the sinner's will is set upon
something that of its nature involves a disorder, but is not opposed to the love of God
and neighbor, such as thoughtless chatter or immoderate laughter and the like, such
sins are venial.[130]
1857 For a sin to be mortal, three conditions must together be met: "Mortal sin is sin
whose object is grave matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and
deliberate consent."[131]
1858 Grave matter is specified by the Ten Commandments, corresponding to the
answer of Jesus to the rich young man: "Do not kill, Do not commit adultery, Do not
steal, Do not bear false witness, Do not defraud, Honor your father and your
mother."[132] The gravity of sins is more or less great: murder is graver than theft. One
must also take into account who is wronged: violence against parents is in itself graver
than violence against a stranger.
1859 Mortal sin requires full knowledge and complete consent. It presupposes
knowledge of the sinful character of the act, of its opposition to God's law. It also
implies a consent sufficiently deliberate to be a personal choice. Feigned ignorance and
hardness of heart[133] do not diminish, but rather increase, the voluntary character of a
sin.
1860 Unintentional ignorance can diminish or even remove the imputability of a grave
offense. But no one is deemed to be ignorant of the principles of the moral law, which
are written in the conscience of every man. The promptings of feelings and passions can
also diminish the voluntary and free character of the offense, as can external pressures or
pathological disorders. Sin committed through malice, by deliberate choice of evil, is the
gravest.
1861 Mortal sin is a radical possibility of human freedom, as is love itself. It results in the
loss of charity and the privation of sanctifying grace, that is, of the state of grace. If it is
not redeemed by repentance and God's forgiveness, it causes exclusion from Christ's
kingdom and the eternal death of hell, for our freedom has the power to make choices
for ever, with no turning back. However, although we can judge that an act is in itself a
grave offense, we must entrust judgment of persons to the justice and mercy of God.
1862 One commits venial sin when, in a less serious matter, he does not observe the
standard prescribed by the moral law, or when he disobeys the moral law in a grave
matter, but without full knowledge or without complete consent.
1863 Venial sin weakens charity; it manifests a disordered affection for created goods; it
impedes the soul's progress in the exercise of the virtues and the practice of the moral
good; it merits temporal punishment. Deliberate and unrepented venial sin disposes us
little by little to commit mortal sin. However venial sin does not break the covenant with
God. With God's grace it is humanly reparable. "Venial sin does not deprive the sinner
of sanctifying grace, friendship with God, charity, and consequently eternal
happiness."[134]
While he is in the flesh, man cannot help but have at least some light sins. But do not
despise these sins which we call "light": if you take them for light when you weigh
them, tremble when you count them. A number of light objects makes a great mass; a
number of drops fills a river; a number of grains makes a heap. What then is our hope?
Above all, confession.[135]
1864 "Therefore I tell you, every sin and blasphemy will be forgiven men, but the
blasphemy against the Spirit will not be forgiven."[136] There are no limits to the mercy
of God, but anyone who deliberately refuses to accept his mercy by repenting, rejects the
forgiveness of his sins and the salvation offered by the Holy Spirit.[137] Such hardness
of heart can lead to final impenitence and eternal loss.
V. THE PROLIFERATION OF SIN
1865 Sin creates a proclivity to sin; it engenders vice by repetition of the same acts. This
results in perverse inclinations which cloud conscience and corrupt the concrete
judgment of good and evil. Thus sin tends to reproduce itself and reinforce itself, but it
cannot destroy the moral sense at its root.
1866 Vices can be classified according to the virtues they oppose, or also be linked to the
capital sins which Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and
St. Gregory the Great. They are called "capital" because they engender other sins, other
vices.[138] They are pride, avarice, envy, wrath, lust, gluttony, and sloth or acedia.
1867 The catechetical tradition also recalls that there are "sins that cry to heaven": the
blood of Abel,[139] the sin of the Sodomites,[140] the cry of the people oppressed in
Egypt,[141] the cry of the foreigner, the widow, and the orphan,[142] injustice to the
wage earner.[143]
1868 Sin is a personal act. Moreover, we have a responsibility for the sins committed by
others when we cooperate in them:
- by participating directly and voluntarily in them;
- by ordering, advising, praising, or approving them;
- by not disclosing or not hindering them when we have an obligation to do so;
- by protecting evil-doers.
1869 Thus sin makes men accomplices of one another and causes concupiscence,
violence, and injustice to reign among them. Sins give rise to social situations and
institutions that are contrary to the divine goodness. "Structures of sin" are the
expression and effect of personal sins. They lead their victims to do evil in their turn. In
an analogous sense, they constitute a "social sin."[144]
IN BRIEF
1870 "God has consigned all men to disobedience, that he may have mercy upon all"
(Rom 11:32).
1871 Sin is an utterance, a deed, or a desire contrary to the eternal law (St. Augustine,
Faust 22: PL 42, 418). It is an offense against God. It rises up against God in a
disobedience contrary to the obedience of Christ.
1872 Sin is an act contrary to reason. It wounds man's nature and injures human
solidarity.
1873 The root of all sins lies in man's heart. The kinds and the gravity of sins are
determined principally by their objects.
1874 To choose deliberately - that is, both knowing it and willing it - something gravely
contrary to the divine law and to the ultimate end of man is to commit a mortal sin. This
destroys in us the charity without which eternal beatitude is impossible. Unrepented, it
brings eternal death.
1875 Venial sin constitutes a moral disorder that is reparable by charity, which it allows
to subsist in us.
1876 The repetition of sins - even venial ones - engenders vices, among which are the
capital sins.
CHAPTER TWO - THE HUMAN COMMUNION
1877 The vocation of humanity is to show forth the image of God and to be
transformed into the image of the Father's only Son. This vocation takes a personal
form since each of us is called to enter into the divine beatitude; it also concerns the
human community as a whole.
ARTICLE 1 - THE PERSON AND SOCIETY
I. THE COMMUNAL CHARACTER OF THE
HUMAN VOCATION
1878 All men are called to the same end: God himself. There is a certain resemblance
between the unity of the divine persons and the fraternity that men are to establish
among themselves in truth and love.[1] Love of neighbor is inseparable from love for
God.
1879 The human person needs to live in society. Society is not for him an extraneous
addition but a requirement of his nature. Through the exchange with others, mutual
service and dialogue with his brethren, man develops his potential; he thus responds to
his vocation.[2]
1880 A society is a group of persons bound together organically by a principle of unity
that goes beyond each one of them. As an assembly that is at once visible and spiritual, a
society endures through time: it gathers up the past and prepares for the future. By
means of society, each man is established as an "heir" and receives certain "talents" that
enrich his identity and whose fruits he must develop.[3] He rightly owes loyalty to the
communities of which he is part and respect to those in authority who have charge of
the common good.
1881 Each community is defined by its purpose and consequently obeys specific rules;
but "the human person . . . is and ought to be the principle, the subject and the end of all
social institutions."[4]
1882 Certain societies, such as the family and the state, correspond more directly to the
nature of man; they are necessary to him. To promote the participation of the greatest
number in the life of a society, the creation of voluntary associations and institutions
must be encouraged "on both national and international levels, which relate to economic
and social goals, to cultural and recreational activities, to sport, to various professions,
and to political affairs."[5] This "socialization" also expresses the natural tendency for
human beings to associate with one another for the sake of attaining objectives that
exceed individual capacities. It develops the qualities of the person, especially the sense
of initiative and responsibility, and helps guarantee his rights.[6]
1883 Socialization also presents dangers. Excessive intervention by the state can threaten
personal freedom and initiative. The teaching of the Church has elaborated the principle
of subsidiarity, according to which "a community of a higher order should not interfere
in the internal life of a community of a lower order, depriving the latter of its functions,
but rather should support it in case of need and help to co- ordinate its activity with the
activities of the rest of society, always with a view to the common good."[7]
1884 God has not willed to reserve to himself all exercise of power. He entrusts to every
creature the functions it is capable of performing, according to the capacities of its own
nature. This mode of governance ought to be followed in social life. The way God acts
in governing the world, which bears witness to such great regard for human freedom,
should inspire the wisdom of those who govern human communities. They should
behave as ministers of divine providence.
1885 The principle of subsidiarity is opposed to all forms of collectivism. It sets limits
for state intervention. It aims at harmonizing the relationships between individuals and
societies. It tends toward the establishment of true international order.
II. CONVERSION AND SOCIETY
1886 Society is essential to the fulfillment of the human vocation. To attain this aim,
respect must be accorded to the just hierarchy of values, which "subordinates physical
and instinctual dimensions to interior and spiritual ones:"[8]
Human society must primarily be considered something pertaining to the spiritual.
Through it, in the bright light of truth, men should share their knowledge, be able to
exercise their rights and fulfill their obligations, be inspired to seek spiritual values;
mutually derive genuine pleasure from the beautiful, of whatever order it be; always be
readily disposed to pass on to others the best of their own cultural heritage; and eagerly
strive to make their own the spiritual achievements of others. These benefits not only
influence, but at the same time give aim and scope to all that has bearing on cultural
expressions, economic, and social institutions, political movements and forms, laws,
and all other structures by which society is outwardly established and constantly
developed.[9]
1887 The inversion of means and ends,[10] which results in giving the value of ultimate
end to what is only a means for attaining it, or in viewing persons as mere means to that
end, engenders unjust structures which "make Christian conduct in keeping with the
commandments of the divine Law-giver difficult and almost impossible."[11]
1888 It is necessary, then, to appeal to the spiritual and moral capacities of the human
person and to the permanent need for his inner conversion, so as to obtain social
changes that will really serve him. The acknowledged priority of the conversion of heart
in no way eliminates but on the contrary imposes the obligation of bringing the
appropriate remedies to institutions and living conditions when they are an inducement
to sin, so that they conform to the norms of justice and advance the good rather than
hinder it.[12]
1889 Without the help of grace, men would not know how "to discern the often narrow
path between the cowardice which gives in to evil, and the violence which under the
illusion of fighting evil only makes it worse."[13] This is the path of charity, that is, of
the love of God and of neighbor. Charity is the greatest social commandment. It
respects others and their rights. It requires the practice of justice, and it alone makes us
capable of it. Charity inspires a life of self-giving: "Whoever seeks to gain his life will lose
it, but whoever loses his life will preserve it."[14]
IN BRIEF
1890 There is a certain resemblance between the unity of the divine persons and the fraternity that men
ought to establish among themselves.
1891 The human person needs life in society in order to develop in accordance with his nature. Certain
societies, such as the family and the state, correspond more directly to the nature of man.
1892 "The human person . . . is and ought to be the principle, the subject, and the object of every social
organization" (GS 25 # 1).
1893 Widespread participation in voluntary associations and institutions is to be encouraged.
1894 In accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, neither the state nor any larger society should
substitute itself for the initiative and responsibility of individuals and intermediary bodies.
1895 Society ought to promote the exercise of virtue, not obstruct it. It should be animated by a just
hierarchy of values.
1896 Where sin has perverted the social climate, it is necessary to call for the conversion of hearts and
appeal to the grace of God. Charity urges just reforms. There is no solution to the social question apart
from the Gospel (cf. CA 3, 5).
ARTICLE 2 - PARTICIPATION IN SOCIAL LIFE
I. AUTHORITY
1897 "Human society can be neither well-ordered nor prosperous unless it has some
people invested with legitimate authority to preserve its institutions and to devote
themselves as far as is necessary to work and care for the good of all."[15]
By "authority" one means the quality by virtue of which persons or institutions make
laws and give orders to men and expect obedience from them.
1898 Every human community needs an authority to govern it.[16] The foundation of
such authority lies in human nature. It is necessary for the unity of the state. Its role is to
ensure as far as possible the common good of the society.
1899 The authority required by the moral order derives from God: "Let every person be
subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and
those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore he who resists the authorities
resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment."[17]
1900 The duty of obedience requires all to give due honor to authority and to treat those
who are charged to exercise it with respect, and, insofar as it is deserved, with gratitude
and good-will.
Pope St. Clement of Rome provides the Church's most ancient prayer for political
authorities:[18] "Grant to them, Lord, health, peace, concord, and stability, so that they
may exercise without offense the sovereignty that you have given them. Master,
heavenly King of the ages, you give glory, honor, and power over the things of earth to
the sons of men. Direct, Lord, their counsel, following what is pleasing and acceptable
in your sight, so that by exercising with devotion and in peace and gentleness the power
that you have given to them, they may find favor with you."[19]
1901 If authority belongs to the order established by God, "the choice of the political
regime and the appointment of rulers are left to the free decision of the citizens."[20]
The diversity of political regimes is morally acceptable, provided they serve the
legitimate good of the communities that adopt them. Regimes whose nature is contrary
to the natural law, to the public order, and to the fundamental rights of persons cannot
achieve the common good of the nations on which they have been imposed.
1902 Authority does not derive its moral legitimacy from itself. It must not behave in a
despotic manner, but must act for the common good as a "moral force based on
freedom and a sense of responsibility":[21]
A human law has the character of law to the extent that it accords with right reason,
and thus derives from the eternal law. Insofar as it falls short of right reason it is said to
be an unjust law, and thus has not so much the nature of law as of a kind of
violence.[22]
1903 Authority is exercised legitimately only when it seeks the common good of the
group concerned and if it employs morally licit means to attain it. If rulers were to enact
unjust laws or take measures contrary to the moral order, such arrangements would not
be binding in conscience. In such a case, "authority breaks down completely and results
in shameful abuse."[23]
1904 "It is preferable that each power be balanced by other powers and by other spheres
of responsibility which keep it within proper bounds. This is the principle of the 'rule of
law,' in which the law is sovereign and not the arbitrary will of men."[24]
II. THE COMMON GOOD
1905 In keeping with the social nature of man, the good of each individual is necessarily
related to the common good, which in turn can be defined only in reference to the
human person:
Do not live entirely isolated, having retreated into yourselves, as if you were already
justified, but gather instead to seek the common good together.[25]
1906 By common good is to be understood "the sum total of social conditions which
allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfillment more fully and
more easily."[26] The common good concerns the life of all. It calls for prudence from
each, and even more from those who exercise the office of authority. It consists of three
essential elements:
1907 First, the common good presupposes respect for the person as such. In the name
of the common good, public authorities are bound to respect the fundamental and
inalienable rights of the human person. Society should permit each of its members to
fulfill his vocation. In particular, the common good resides in the conditions for the
exercise of the natural freedoms indispensable for the development of the human
vocation, such as "the right to act according to a sound norm of conscience and to
safeguard . . . privacy, and rightful freedom also in matters of religion."[27]
1908 Second, the common good requires the social well-being and development of the
group itself. Development is the epitome of all social duties. Certainly, it is the proper
function of authority to arbitrate, in the name of the common good, between various
particular interests; but it should make accessible to each what is needed to lead a truly
human life: food, clothing, health, work, education and culture, suitable information, the
right to establish a family, and so on.[28]
1909 Finally, the common good requires peace, that is, the stability and security of a just
order. It presupposes that authority should ensure by morally acceptable means the
security of society and its members. It is the basis of the right to legitimate personal and
collective defence.
1910 Each human community possesses a common good which permits it to be
recognized as such; it is in the political community that its most complete realization is
found. It is the role of the state to defend and promote the common good of civil
society, its citizens, and intermediate bodies.
1911 Human interdependence is increasing and gradually spreading throughout the
world. The unity of the human family, embracing people who enjoy equal natural
dignity, implies a universal common good. This good calls for an organization of the
community of nations able to "provide for the different needs of men; this will involve
the sphere of social life to which belong questions of food, hygiene, education, . . . and
certain situations arising here and there, as for example . . . alleviating the miseries of
refugees dispersed throughout the world, and assisting migrants and their families."[29]
1912 The common good is always oriented towards the progress of persons: "The order
of things must be subordinate to the order of persons, and not the other way
around."[30] This order is founded on truth, built up in justice, and animated by love.
III. RESPONSIBILITY AND PARTICIPATION
1913 "Participation" is the voluntary and generous engagement of a person in social
interchange. It is necessary that all participate, each according to his position and role, in
promoting the common good. This obligation is inherent in the dignity of the human
person.
1914 Participation is achieved first of all by taking charge of the areas for which one
assumes personal responsibility: by the care taken for the education of his family, by
conscientious work, and so forth, man participates in the good of others and of
society.[31]
1915 As far as possible citizens should take an active part in public life. The manner of
this participation may vary from one country or culture to another. "One must pay
tribute to those nations whose systems permit the largest possible number of the citizens
to take part in public life in a climate of genuine freedom."[32]
1916 As with any ethical obligation, the participation of all in realizing the common
good calls for a continually renewed conversion of the social partners. Fraud and other
subterfuges, by which some people evade the constraints of the law and the
prescriptions of societal obligation, must be firmly condemned because they are
incompatible with the requirements of justice. Much care should be taken to promote
institutions that improve the conditions of human life.[33]
1917 It is incumbent on those who exercise authority to strengthen the values that
inspire the confidence of the members of the group and encourage them to put
themselves at the service of others. Participation begins with education and culture.
"One is entitled to think that the future of humanity is in the hands of those who are
capable of providing the generations to come with reasons for life and optimism."[34]
IN BRIEF
1918 "There is no authority except from God, and those authorities that exist have been
instituted by God" (Rom 13:1).
1919 Every human community needs an authority in order to endure and develop.
1920 "The political community and public authority are based on human nature and
therefore . . . belong to an order established by God" (GS 74 # 3).
1921 Authority is exercised legitimately if it is committed to the common good of
society. To attain this it must employ morally acceptable means.
1922 The diversity of political regimes is legitimate, provided they contribute to the
good of the community.
1923 Political authority must be exercised within the limits of the moral order and must
guarantee the conditions for the exercise of freedom.
1924 The common good comprises "the sum total of social conditions which allow
people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfillment more fully and more
easily" (GS 26 1).
1925 The common good consists of three essential elements: respect for and promotion
of the fundamental rights of the person; prosperity, or the development of the spiritual
and temporal goods of society; the peace and security of the group and of its members.
1926 The dignity of the human person requires the pursuit of the common good.
Everyone should be concerned to create and support institutions that improve the
conditions of human life.
1927 It is the role of the state to defend and promote the common good of civil society.
The common good of the whole human family calls for an organization of society on
the international level.
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